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By فهد ماجد80
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المدخل: في حدود سلطة المجتمع على الفرد

ليس موضوع هذا البحث الحرية التي تسمى "حرية الإرادة" والتي تقابل لسوء الحظ ما يسمى خطأ بالضرورة الفلسفية، وإنما موضوعه: الحرية والمدنية، أو الاجتماعية، وطبيعة السلطة التي يمارسها المجتمع شرعيا على الأفراد، وحدودها. إنها مسألة قلّ أن عرضت، وندر أن بحثت بشكل عام، ولكنها مع ذلك ذات أثر عميق في مشاكل هذا العصر العملية لوجودها الكامن الخفي. واكثر الظن أنها سوف تبرز نفسها قريبا لتعتبر مسألة المستقبل الحيوية. إنها أبعد ما تكون عن الجيدة. ويمكن القول انها منذ أقدم العصور تقريبا قد شطرت العالم. أما في مرحلة التقدم الحالية التي دخلها اكثر أقوام النوع الإنساني حضارة، فإنها تعرض نفسها ضمن شروط جديدة وتتطلب معالجة جديدة وأكثر عمقا.

إن الصراع بين الحرية وبين السلطة أبرز ظاهرة في أقسام التواريخ التي نعرفها، وخاصة تاريخ اليونان وروما وإنكلترا. أما في العصور القديمة فقد كان هذا الصراع بين الرعية أو بعض طبقات الرعية وبين الحكومة، وكان المعنى المفهوم من الحرية الاحتماء من استبداد الحكام السياسيين. فقد كان هؤلاء الحكام (باستثناء بعض حكومات الإغريق الشعبية) يُنظر إليهم وكأنهم بالضرورة في وضع معاد للشعب الذي يحكمون. كان الحكم بيد حاكم فرد، أو بيد قبيلة حاكمة أو سلالة، وكانت سلطتهم آتية عن طريق الإرث أو الفتح، ولم تكن تمارس برضى المحكومين، ولم يكن أحد يجرؤ على منازعة تلك السيادة أو يرغب في ذلك رغم كل الاحتياطات التي كانت تتخذ لاتقاء ضغطها التعسفي. كانت النظرة إلى سلطانهم أنه ضروري وأنه عظيم الخطر في الوقت نفسه، فهو سلاح قد يحاولون استعماله ضد رعيتهم كما يحاولون استعماله ضد العدو الخارجي. كذلك كان من الضروري، حتى لا يقع الضعاف من أعضاء المجتمع فريسة ينهكها عدد لا يحصى من العقبان، أن يوجد هناك حيوان جارح يكون أقوى من الآخرين يُناط به أمر إخضاعها. ولكن، لما كان ملك العقبان ليس أقل ميلا إلى افتراس الرعية من أي نهاب سلاب آخر، فقد كانت الضرورة تقضي دائما باتخاذ خطة الدفاع ضد مخلبيه ومنقاره. لذلك كان هدف الوطنيين وضع حد للسلطة التي يجب أن يتحمل الحاكم مسؤولية ممارستها على المجتمع، وهذا التحديد هو ما عنوه بالحرية. حاولوا إرساء أسس هذا التحديد بطريقتين: الأولى هي الحصول على اعتراف ببعض الحصانات، تسمى الحريات أو الحقوق السياسية، كان انتهاكها من قبل الحاكم يعتبر إخلالا بواجبه، فإذا اقدم على انتهاكها كان في عمله ما يبرر المقاومة الخاصة أو الثورة الشاملة؛ أما الطريقة الثانية التي ظهرت بعد الأولى فكانت إقامة ضوابط دستورية بموجبها أصبحت موافقة المجتمع، أو أي هيئة يفترض انها تمثل مصالحه، شرطا لازما في بعض الإجراءات الهامة التي تريدها السلطة الحاكمة. لقد اضطرت السلطة الحاكمة في معظم البلاد الأوروبية إلى الرضوخ، نوعا ما، للطريقة الأولى. ولكن الحال لم يكن كذلك بالنسبة للطريقة الثانية: إذ أصبح الوصول إلى هذا النوع من التحديد أو إلى إكماله حين يكون جزء منه مؤمنا، اصبح ذلك في كل مكان الغرض الأساسي لمحبي الحرية. ولما اطمأن البشر إلى محاربة عدو بعدو آخر، وقنعوا بأن يُحكَموا من قبل سيد ضمن شروط تؤمن لهم نوعا من الحماية ضد استبداده، فانهم لم يعودوا يعملون ليدفعوا بأمانيهم إلى أبعد من هذه النقطة.

ثم جاء زمن رأى الناس فيه أن ليس من ضرورة طبيعية أن يكّون حكامهم سلطة مستقلة، تتعارض مصالحها مع مصالحهم. وبدا لهم أن الأفضل أن يكون أولئك الذين يستلمون شؤون الدولة وكلاء أو مندوبين عنهم يعزلونهم متى شاءوا. وظهر أن هذا هو السبيل الوحيد الذي يعطيهم الضمانة التامة في أن لا يساء استعمال سلطة الحكم في غير صالحهم. هذا الطلب الجديد لحكام ينتخبون انتخابا لمدة مؤقتة أصبح تدريجيا الغرض الرئيسي لأي حزب شعبي أينما وجد حزب من هذا النوع. وأخذ هذا الطلب، إلى حد بعيد، مكان طلب الحد من سلطة الحكام الذي كانت تسعى إليه الجهود السابقة. وفيما كان النضال لجعل السلطة الحاكمة تنبثق عن انتخاب دوري من قبل المحكومين يسير في وجهته، أخذ بعض الناس يفكرون بأن الأهمية التي علقوها على مسألة تحديد السلطة نفسها كانت أكثر من اللازم، وان المسألة نفسها يمكن أن تكون مأخذا يؤخذ ضد الحكام الذين كانت مصالحهم عادة متضاربة مع مصالح الشعب. فما هو مطلوب الآن هو أن يكون الحكام متجاوبين مع الأمة وأن تكون مصالحهم وإرادتهم مصلحة الأمة وإرادتها. لن تحتاج الأمة إلى حماية من إرادتها الذاتية، وليس هناك خوف من أن تستبد بنفسها. ليكن الحكام مسؤولين عنها بطريقة مثمرة، وليكونوا عرضة للعزل من قِبَلِها، وعندها يمكن أن تمنحهم سلطات تستطيع هي أن تفرض أين يجب أن تُستعمل. وسلطتهم عندئذ ليست شيئا آخر سوى سلطة الأمة، وقد تمركزت بطريقة صالحة للتنفيذ.

أن هذا الأسلوب في التفكير، أو بالأحرى في الشعور، كان شائعا بين الأجيال الأخيرة من أحرار أوروبا، ولا يزال شائعا فيها حتى الآن كما يظهر. ويبقى أولئك الذين يقبلون فرض أي حد على ما يمكن أن تفعله الحكومة (إلا في حالة الحكومات التي يعتقدون أنها يجب أن لا توجد) يبقون قلة لامعين بين مفكري أوروبا السياسيين. إن أسلوبا في الشعور مماثلا لما ذكرت كان من الممكن أن يكون سائدا في بلادنا نفسها في هذا الوقت لو أن الظروف التي شجعته فترة من الزمن بقيت ولم تتبدل.

بيد أن النجاح في النظريات الفلسفية والسياسية، وفي الأشخاص أيضا يكشف عن عيوب وخطيئات قد يخفيها الفشل عن عين الملاحظ. فالرأي القائل بأن الشعب لا يحتاج إلى تحديد سلطته على نفسه قد يبدو حقيقة بديهية حين تكون الحكومة الشعبية مجرد حلم، أو مجرد شيء تقرأ عنه على أنه حدث في الماضي البعيد. ولم يتضايق هذا الرأي بما حدث من انحرافات مؤقتة كانحرافات الثورة الفرنسية التي جاء أسوأ ما فيها عن عمل قلة مغتصبة، والتي لم تكن في أي حال ناجمة عن عمل ثابت لمؤسسات شعبية بل عن ثورة فجائية اضطرابية قامت ضد استبداد الملك والطبقة الأرستقراطية. ولكن قامت مع الزمن جمهورية ديمقراطية احتلت حيزا واسعا من سطح الكرة الأرضية وأثبتت وجودها كواحدة من أقوى أعضاء مجموعة الأمم، وبذلك وضعت حكومة منتخبة ومسؤولة موضع الانتقادات والملاحظات التي تنتظر حقيقة واقعية كبرى. وقد تبين عندئذ ان عبارات مثل "الحكم الذاتي" و"سلطة الشعب على نفسه" لا تعبر عن حقيقة الوضع الراهن. فـ "الشعب" الذي يمارس السلطة ليس دائما نفس الشعب الذي يخضع لها، و"الحكم الذاتي" الذي يتحدث عنه ليس حكم كل فرد من قبل نفسه بل حكم كل فرد من قبل كل الآخرين. وإرادة الشعب، إضافة إلى ذلك، إنما تعني عمليا إرادة العدد الأكبر أو إرادة الجزء الأكثر نشاطا من الشعب (إرادة الأكثرية)، أو أولئك الذين ينجحون في جعل أنفسهم مقبولين على أنهم الأكثرية. فقد يجوز بنتيجة ذلك أن يرغب الشعب في اضطهاد قسم من أفراده. وهنا يصبح من الضروري أن يُتخذ ضد هذا الأمر من الاحتياطات ما يُتخذ ضد أي نوع آخر من سوء استعمال السلطة وعليه تحديد سلطة الحكومة على الأفراد لا يفقد شيئا من أهميته عندما يكون القابضون على زمام السلطة مسؤولين بانتظام أمام المجتمع، أي أمام أقوى حزب فيه. وإن وجهة النظر هذه التي استساغتها على السواء عقلية المفكرين وميول الطبقات الهامة في المجتمع الأوروبي التي تتعارض مصالحها الحقيقية أو المفروضة مع الديمقراطية، لم تلاق صعوبة في تثبيت نفسها. وأصبح التفكير السياسي عامة يشمل مسألة "استبداد الأكثرية" في عداد الشرور التي يجب على المجتمع أن يظل على حذر منها.

كان أكثر الناس ولا يزالون يخشون طغيان الأكثرية كما يخشون سائر أنواع الطغيان الأخرى، وذلك لأنه ينفّذ في الغالب عن طريق إجراءات السلطات العامة. ولكن رجال الفكر يرون أن المجتمع حين يكون هو نفسه الطاغية (أي حين يكون المجتمع بجملته ضد الأفراد) فان ذلك يعني أن أساليب طغيانه لا تنحصر بالإجراءات التي يمكن أن ينفذها عن طريق موظفيه السياسيين. إن المجتمع قادر على إصدار الأوامر وعلى تنفيذها بنفسه. فإذا أصدر أوامر خاطئة بدلا من الصحيحة، أو إن أصدر أوامر في شؤون يجب أن لا يتدخل فيها، فإنه يمارس بذلك طغيانا اجتماعيا هو أشد عتوا من كثير من ألوان الاضطهاد السياسي لأنه، وإن لم تدعمه عادة عقوبات شديدة، فان وسائل النجاة التي يتركها قليلة، وهو ينفذ إلى الصميم في كثير من نواحي الحياة، ويستعبد الروح ذاتها. لهذا كان الاحتماء من طغيان الحكام غير كاف، وكان لا بد من حماية ضد طغيان الآراء والمشاعر الشائعة، وضد ميل المجتمع لان يفرض (دون اللجوء إلى العقوبات المدنية) آراءه الخاصة وطقوسه كقواعد للسلوك، يفرضها حتى على أولئك الذين لا يوافقون عليها، ليكبل النمو والتطور، ويمنع إن أمكن تكوين أي شخصية فردية لا تكون منسجمة مع طرقه، ويجبر كل الطبائع على تكييف نفسها طبق أنموذج من صنعه هو. إن هنالك حدا للتدخل المشروع في استقلال الفرد من قبل الرأي الجماعي. وإن إيجاد ذلك الحد وصيانته من التجاوز أو الاعتداء عليه لازم لحسن سلامة شؤون الناس لزوم الاحتماء من الاستبداد السياسي.

ولكن لئن كان من غير المتوقع أن تناقش هذه القضية بصورة عامة. فإن السؤال العملي: أين يجب وضع الحد، وكيف يمكن تحقيق التوفيق المناسب بين الاستقلال الفردي وبين السيطرة الاجتماعية؟ هذا السؤال يبقى الموضوع الذي عليه يتوقف كل شيء تقريبا.

إن كل ما يجعل للوجود قيمة في نظر أي شخص مرتكز على تنفيذ الضوابط التي تضبط أفعال الآخرين. فيجب إذن فرض بعض قواعد للسلوك عن طريق القانون أولا، ثم عن طريق الرأي العام في الأشياء الكثيرة التي لا تكون قابلة للإجراءات القانونية. أما ما هي هذه القيود اللازمة، فهذا هو السؤال الرئيسي في شؤون البشر.

إننا إذا استثنينا بعض المسائل الواضحة جدا، فان السؤال السابق يبقى بين المسائل التي لم يصل السعي وراء حل لها إلا إلى قدر ضئيل من التقدم. فلم يُعطِ عصران أو بلدان حلا واحدا له. لا بل إن الحل الذي قال به عصر أو بلد كان موضع استغراب الآخر وتعجبه. ومع كل ذلك فان الناس في أي عصر أو بلد لم يعودوا يرتابون بوجود أي صعوبة فيه، وكأنه موضوع كان الناس متفقين دائما حوله. والقواعد يجري بها العرف بينهم تبدو لهم جلية في حد ذاتها، ولا تحتاج إلى تبرير. إن هذا الوهم العام ليس إلا واحدا من الأمثلة على التأثير السحري للعرف، هذا العرف الذي يؤخذ لا على انه، كما يقول المثل، طبيعة ثانية فقط، بل يؤخذ دائما وخطأ على أنه طبيعة أولى. إن أثر هذا العرف في إزالة أي شك يمكن أن يعلق في نفوس الناس بشأن قواعد الأخلاق التي يفرضها الناس بعضهم على بعض هو في ازدياد مستمر لأن الموضوع أمر لا يوجد بشأنه اتفاق عام بأنه يحتاج إلى تبرير، لا من قِبَل شخص نحو الآخرين، ولا من قِبَل شخص نحو نفسه. فقد اعتاد الناس أن يعتقدوا أن مشاعرهم حول موضوعات من هذا النوع هي أفضل من الأسباب، وانها تجعل التعليل غير ضروري، وقد شجعهم على هذا الاعتقاد جماعة يطمحون في أن يكونوا بين الفلاسفة. والمبدأ العملي الذي يرشد هؤلاء الناس إلى آرائهم في تنظيم السلوك البشري هو الشعور الموجود في رأس كل منهم بأن على الجميع أن يفعلوا كما يريدهم هو ومن على شاكلته أن يفعلوا.

لا يعترف أحد في الواقع أمام نفسه أن مقياسه في الأحكام مبني على ما يحب ويرغب، ولكن الرأي الذي يُعطى في مسألة مسلكية ولا يكون مشفوعا بالأسباب لا يعدو كونه تفضيلا شخصيا. فإذا ذُكرت الأسباب ولم تكن شيئا آخر سوى تفضيلا مماثلا شعر به آخرون، بقي الأمر مجرد رغبة أناس كثيرين بدلا من واحد. إن هذا التفضيل الشخصي الذي يؤيده بهذه الطريقة تفضيل الآخرين ليس سببا كافيا وكاملا فحسب بالنسبة للشخص العادي، بل إنه السبب الوحيد عنده الذي به يبرر عادة أيا من آرائه في الأخلاق، أو الذوق، أو اللياقة حين لا تكون هذه الآراء مكتوبة صراحة في عقيدته الدينية، لا بل إنه أيضا مرشده الرئيسي في تفسيره حتى لتلك العقيدة. وهكذا تكون آراء الناس حول ما هو ممدوح أو مذموم متأثرة بكل الأسباب المتنوعة التي تتأثر بها رغباتهم بشأن سلوك الغير، وهي أسباب متعددة بقدر تعدد الأسباب التي تقرر رغباتهم بشأن أي موضوع آخر. فالأسباب تارة عقلهم، وأخرى تحّيزهم أو خرافتهم، وكثيرا ما تكون عواطفهم المحبة للمجتمع أو الكارهة له، أو حسدهم أو غيرتهم، أو غطرستهم أو ازدراؤهم. وأكثر الأسباب شيوعا هي محبتهم لأنفسهم أو خوفهم عليها: أو مصلحتهم الشخصية المشروعة أو غير المشروعة. وحيثما وجدت طبقة عالية فان القسم الأكبر من أخلاق البلاد ينبثق عن مصالح تلك الطبقة وعن شعورها بالتفوق الطبقي. فالأخلاق بين الإسبارطيين وبين الأرقاء، بين المزارعين وبين الزنوج، بين الأمراء وبين الرعية، بين النبلاء وبين مستأجري أراضيهم، بين الرجال وبين النساء؛ هذه الأخلاق كانت في معظمها وليدة تلك المصالح والمشاعر الطبقية. والعواطف التي تتولد بهذه الطريقة يرتد مفعولها على المشاعر الأخلاقية لأعضاء الطبقة العليا في علاقاتهم فيما بينهم، أما حين توجد طبقة كانت سابقا عالية وفقدت تفوقها، أو كان تفوقها غير محبوب، فان العواطف الأخلاقية السائدة عندئذ غالبا ما تحمل معها طابع الكراهية الملحة للتفوق. وهناك مبدأ خطير آخر من المبادئ التي يفرضها القانون أو الرأي العام والتي تحدد قواعد السلوك في الفعل أو في رحابة الصدر، هذا المبدأ هو خنوع البشر تجاه ما يحبه أو ما يكرهه أسيادهم المؤقتون أو أصنامهم. إن هذا الخنوع، الذي هو في الأصل أناني، ليس رياء كله: إنه يثير عواطف أصيلة من المقت والكراهية، وقد دفع البشر إلى إحراق السحرة والمارقين. لقد كان لمصالح المجتمع حتما، العامة منها والواضحة، نصيب، ونصيب كبير، بين تلك العوامل الكثيرة التي عملت في توجيه العواطف الأخلاقية، ولكن ذلك لم يكن بدافع الفكر والعقل، أو بسبب قيمة العواطف نفسها، بقدر ما كان نتيجة التعاطف أو الكراهية الذَين انبثقا عن تلك العواطف نفسها. إن ذلك التعاطف وتلك الكراهية لم تكن لهما أي صلة بمصالح المجتمع، ولكنهما أثبتتا وجودهما كقوتين كبيرتين في إيجاد الفضائل.

هكذا فإن ما يحبه المجتمع وما يكرهه، أو ما يحبه وما يكرهه قسم كبير منه، هو العامل الرئيسي الذي حدد عمليا القواعد التي يجب مراعاتها من قبل الجميع تحت طائلة عقوبة القانون أو الرأي العام. وحين جاء أناس سبقوا المجتمع في التفكير والشعور فانهم بشكل عام تركوا الوضع الراهن دون ان يحملوا عليه من حيث المبدأ، رغما عن أنهم قد يكونوا قد تصادموا معه في بعض التفاصيل. فقد شغلوا أنفسهم ببحث ما يجب على المجتمع أن يحب أو يكره بدلا من البحث فيما إذا كان ما يحبه المجتمع أو يكرهه يجب أن يفرض كقانون على الأفراد. لقد آثروا أن يحاولوا تغيير شعور الناس تجاه النقاط التي كانوا هم أنفسهم يجحدونها بدلا من أن يتضافروا في الدفاع عن الحرية مع عموم الجاحدين. والقضية الوحيدة التي ثابروا فيها على جعل النقاش على مستوى عال وبناء على مبادئ هي قضية العقيدة الدينية: هذه القضية التي ناقشها أشخاص هنا وهناك ليست وسيلة تهذيب وتثقيف فحسب، بل هي أيضا مثال واضح على أن ما يَمّس بالحس الأخلاقي ليس معصوما عن الخطأ، لان عنف المشادات الدينية عند الجلّ المتعصب من أوضح الأمثلة على الحس الأخلاقي. إن أولئك الذين كانوا أول من حطم نِيْرَ ما كان يسمى بالكنيسة العالمية لم يكونوا يريدون السماح بوجود خلاف بين الآراء الدينية، شأنهم في ذلك شأن الكنيسة نفسها. ولكن لما برد وطيس المعركة دون أن يفوز أي فريق بانتصار حاسم، واضطرت كل كنيسة أو فرقة دينية إلى تحديد أمانيها إلى حد الاحتفاظ بما نالته من نفوذ، وجدت الأقليات، التي لم يكن لها أمل في أن تصبح أكثرية، نفسها مضطرة إلى أن تطلب ممن لم تكسبهم إلى جانبها أن يسمحوا لها بان تختلف عنهم. وفي هذا الميدان وحده تقريبا أمكن لحقوق الفرد ضد المجتمع أن تثبتت على أسس عامة من المبادئ وظهرت معارضة مكشوفة لادعاء المجتمع بحقه في ممارسة سلطة ضد المنشقين. إن الكّتاب الكبار الذين يدين لهم العالم بالفضل في ما أحرزه من حرية دينية قد أكدوا أن حرية الضمير حق لا يُقهر واستنكروا بشكل قاطع أن يكون الشخص مسؤولا أمام الآخرين عن عقيدته الدينية. إلا ان عدَم التسامح من طبيعة البشر في كل ما يهمهم حقيقةٌ، ولم تتحقق الحرية الدينية بصورة عملية في أي مكان إلا حيث دعمتها اللامبالاة الدينية التي تكره أن تُعكّر صفوها المنازعات اللاهوتية. ان عقل جميع المتدينين، حتى في اكثر البلاد تسامحا، يقر واجب التسامح ولكن مع تحفظات ضمنية. فقد يقبل شخص الاختلاف في شؤون حكم الكنيسة، ولكن لا في تعاليمها المقررة، وقد يتقبل آخر كل شخص عدا البابوي أو الموحِّد، وقد يتقبل ثالث كل من يؤمن بدين مُنزَل، وقد يوسع بعضهم حدود التسامح ولكنهم يقفون عند تحد الإيمان بالله والحياة الأخرى. اما حيث لا تزال عاطفة الأكثرية أصيلة وشديدة فإننا نجد أنها لم تخفف شيئا يذكر من غلوها في وجوب إطاعتها.

إن وطأة الرأي العام في إنكلترا أشد مما هي في اكثر بلاد أوروبا، على الرغم من أن وطأة القانون قد تكون أخف، وما ذلك إلا بسبب الظروف الخاصة لتاريخ إنكلترا السياسي. فهناك قلق بالغ من جراء التدخل المباشر في سلوك الفرد من قبل السلطة التشريعية أو السلطة التنفيذية، ولا يأتي ذلك عن مجرد الغيرة على استقلال الفرد بقدر ما يأتي عن العادة المستحكمة في النظر إلى الحكومة على انها تمثل مصلحة أخرى معارضة لمصلحة الشعب. فالأكثرية لم تتعلم بعد أن تشعر بأن سلطة الحكومة سلطتها، وآراءها آراؤها. ومتى تعلمت الأكثرية ذلك، فالأرجح أن تتعرض الحرية لغزو الحكومة بقدر ما هي معرضة الآن لغزو الرأي العام. ولكن لا يزال هناك قدر محترم من الشعور على استعداد للقيام ضد أية محاولة من قبل القانون للسيطرة على الأفراد في شؤون لم يسبق لهم أن تعودوا على سيطرة القانون فيها. وذلك بغض النظر عما إذا كان الأمر يدخل في نطاق سيطرة القانون المشروعة أو لا يدخل. إن هذا الشعور السليم بمجمله قد يكون أحيانا في غير محله. وليس هناك في الواقع أي مبدأ معترف به لقياس ملائمة أو عدم ملائمة التدخل الحكومي، وإنما يقرر الناس ذلك وفقا لأهوائهم الشخصية. فمنهم من يهيب بالحكومة إلى التدخل والعمل كلما رأى خيرا يجب فعله أو شرا يجب معالجته وتلافيه، بينما يفضل غيرهم أن يتحملوا أي مقدار كان من الشر الاجتماعي على أن يضيفوا إلى مصالح الناس التي تُخضع للسيطرة الحكومية مصالح أخرى. والناس يأخذون هذا الجانب أو ذاك في أي قضية وفق التوجيه العام لعواطفهم، أو وفقا لمقدار اهتمامهم بالأمر الذي يقترح أن تقوم به الحكومة، أو وفقا لاعتقادهم بأن الحكومة، سوف تؤديه أو لن تؤديه بالطريقة التي يفضلونها، ولكن قَلّ أن يكون أخذهم هذا الجانب أو ذاك بناء على رأي يتمسكون به حول الأمور التي يكون من المناسب أن تقوم بها الحكومة. وبناء على عدم وجود أي مبدأ أو قاعدة، يلوح لي ان كلا من الجانبين يخطئ الآخر، وأن تدخل الحكومة يتعادل فيه عدد المرات التي يساء فيها ابتغاؤه وعدد المرات التي يساء فيها استنكاره.

إن غرض هذا البحث هو تأكيد مبدأ بسيط جدا جدير بأن ينظم معاملات المجتمع مع الفرد من حيث الإكراه والسيطرة، أكانت الأساليب المستعملة قوة مادية على شكل عقوبات قانونية أم كانت الضغط المعنوي للرأي العام. إن ذلك المبدأ هو أن الغاية الوحيدة التي تجيز للبشر، أفرادا كانوا أم جماعة، أن يتدخلوا في حرية أفعال أي واحد منهم إنما هي حماية الذات. أي إن الغرض الوحيد الذي من أجله يمكن ممارسة السلطة بحق في أي مجتمع متمدن على عضو منه رغم إرادته إنما هو دفع الأذى عن الغير. فلا يكفي أن يكون الهدف الخير الخاص للعضو، ماديا كان هذا الخير أم معنويا. ولا يجوز عدلا إرغامه على القيام بأمر أو على الامتناع عنه لأن ذلك خير له، أو لأن ذلك يجعله أسعد حالا، أو لأن الآخرين يرون أن من الحكمة والصواب فعل ذلك، إن هذه الأسباب كلها وجيهة، تنفع في التباحث معه، أو المناقشة معه، أو في إقناعه، أو في رجائه، ولكنها لا تبرر إرغامه أو إلحاق الأذى به إن فعل عكس ما يطلب منه. ولا يبرر ذلك إلا الحساب بأن السلوك الذي يقصد إبعاده عنه سوف ينجم عنه ضرر يصيب الغير: فالجزء الوحيد من سلوك أي فرد، الذي يكون مسؤولا عنه تجاه المجتمع، هو ذلك الذي يمس الغير. أما الجزء الذي يمس الشخص وحده فان استقلاله فيه مطلق وحق. فالفرد سيد على نفسه في عقله وفي جسمه.

قد يكون من الضروري أن نقول هنا إن هذا المذهب ينطبق فقط على أفراد النوع الإنساني الذين وصلوا إلى مرحلة النضوج في ملكاتهم. فنحن لا نتكلم في الواقع عن الأطفال أو الأحداث الذين هم دون السن التي يحددها القانون للرجولة أو لنضج النساء. أما الذين لا يزالون بحاجة إلى عناية الغير بهم، فتجب حمايتهم من أفعالهم كما تجب حمايتهم من الأذى الخارجي. كذلك يمكن للسبب نفسه أن نخرج من دائرة اعتباراتنا المجتمعات المتخلفة التي يمكن اعتبار الأقوام التي تؤلفها أقواما قاصرة. فالصعوبات المبكرة التي تعترض سبيل التقدم الذاتي من الخطورة بحيث لا يبقى هناك أي مجال للمفاضلة بين وسائل التغلب عليها. والحاكم المشبَّع بروح الإصلاح يجوز له أن يستعمل أي وسيلة توصله إلى الهدف الذي لا يبلغه بأي من الوسائل الأخرى. إن الاستبداد أسلوب شرعي في حكم البرابرة شريطة أن تكون الغاية تحسين حالهم، وتحقيق تلك الغاية فعلا يبرر تلك الواسطة. والحرية كمبدأ لا مجال لتطبيقها في أي من الحالات التي توجد قبل ذلك الوقت الذي يصبح فيه البشر قادرين على التحسن عن طريق المباحثات الحرة بين أطراف تحققت المساواة بينهم. حتى ذلك الحين لا يكون أمامهم إلا الطاعة لعاهل أو لملك جبار عادل إن أسعفهم حظهم بوجوده. ولكن ما ان يكتسب البشر القدرة على الانصياع إلى الاقتناع أو الإقناع في تحسين أحوالهم (وهذه مرحلة وصلت إليها منذ زمن بعيد كل الأمم التي يهمنا أمرها هنا) حتى يصبح الإكراه في شكله المباشر أو في شكل إيذاء المخالف وعقابه أمرا غير مقبول إذا قُصد استعماله كوسيلة لخيرهم، حتى وإن بقي مسموحا به في حالة ضمان أمن الغير.

من المناسب أن أذكر هنا أني أتنازل عن أي فائدة تدعم حجتي يمكن ان تأتيني من فكرة الحق المجرد كشيء مستقل عن المنفعة. فانا اعتبر المنفعة الملاذ النهائي في كل المسائل الأخلاقية: ولكنها يجب أن تكون المنفعة في أوسع معانيها، القائمة على مصالح الإنسان الدائمة من حيث هو مخلوق تقدمي. إن هذه المصالح كما أراها تسمح بإخضاع الفعل العفوي الفردي للقيد الخارجي في حالة واحدة فقط هي حين تكون أفعال الفرد ماسة بمصالح الآخرين.
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??s Phylite content fills both of these roles by getting resilient enough for cushion, but tough adequate to speak to the road, resulting in reduced bodyweight. Designers have placed abrasion-resistant BRS one thousand carbon rubber pads on the large-put on regions of the sole to additional boost sturdiness. Another putting difference in the Nike Free of charge Run+ three sole device is the cuts, or sipes, by way of the sole that give the shoe incredible versatility and enough stability to supply a barefoot-like truly feel. The resulting flex grooves reduce impact shock and can assist proper over-pronation. Diagonal cuts have also been placed together the arch area to enhance versatility and enhance foot toughness. The Nike Free of charge Operate+ three is outfitted with an opening in the midsole to maintain a Nike Plus Chip, which can url to certain iProducts and the Nike sportwatch to transmit and keep running data. The opening doesna??t appear to influence the overall flexibility.

This is the element of a working shoe the place I would most love to have a barefoot-like feel. I like some security on the sole of my foot, but do not want to come to feel the upper digging in anywhere. The Nike Free Run+ 3 higher is safe adequate to keep the foot locked in place, but stretchy and seamless sufficient to give an exceptionally cozy come to feel. The higher is manufactured of Nanoply, which is equally supportive and breathable. Close to the arch and midfoot, Dynamic Suit is used to create an inner sleeve that provides a glove-like in shape. Asymmetrical lacing is also used to url the foot to the shoe, but permit for strain relief on the leading ridge of the foot. All of which direct to a notably unnoticeable suit.

As pointed out above, I was skeptical about attempting working footwear other than my favorite Nike Pegasus even so, following logging some miles in the Nike Free of charge Operate+3a??s I was confident that they could discover a spot in my closet for numerous operates to occur. The shoe is light-weight, flexible, and comfortable. These traits all led to a wonderful operating encounter that remaining me seeking to depart the footwear on for the rest of the day. I would like I could dress in the Nike Free Operate+3a??s on my nearby trails as well, but they arena??t suited for running on even the most groomed gravel trails a?? as they will select up quite a few rocks in the siped soles. Wear them on the monitor or pavement and you will be happy.

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Close to 1832 the thought of sticking rubber alongside the bottom of shoes worn for tennis or croquet was considered up. On account of the simple fact that they have been silent they proved popular among thieves coming to be identified as sneakers, or at times plimsoles. These ended up also employed for jogging and a lot of athletes completed ultra marathons of eighty kilometres in plimsoles as just lately as the nike 5.0
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Nazi Germany hosted the Olympic online games in 1936, and it was a man referred to as Adolf Dassler who designed special gear for the function, initiating what was to turn into a massive market. Right after the War Dassler located himself limited of footwear resources and utilized scraps of canvas and leather collected from military waste. He set three strips of leather-based throughout the tops of uppers to include power and help.

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??s Phylite material fills each of these roles by currently being resilient adequate for cushion, but durable sufficient to contact the street, resulting in diminished bodyweight. Designers have placed abrasion-resistant BRS 1000 carbon rubber pads on the high-wear areas of the sole to further boost longevity. An additional striking variation in the Nike Free of charge Run+ 3 sole device is the cuts, or sipes, via the sole that give the shoe amazing overall flexibility and ample balance to supply a barefoot-like feel. The ensuing flex grooves reduce impact shock and can help right in excess of-pronation. Diagonal cuts have also been put alongside the arch area to enhance flexibility and enhance foot power. The Nike Cost-free Operate+ 3 is outfitted with an opening in the midsole to maintain a Nike Additionally Chip, which can hyperlink to specific iProducts and the Nike sportwatch to transmit and store working knowledge. The opening does not show up to affect the versatility.

This is the portion of a working shoe the place I would most love to have a barefoot-like truly feel. I like some security on the sole of my foot, but really don't want to really feel the higher digging in wherever. The Nike Free of charge Run+ three higher is safe enough to keep the foot locked in place, but stretchy and seamless sufficient to give an extremely relaxed feel. The upper is made of Nanoply, which is each supportive and breathable. About the arch and midfoot, Dynamic Match is employed to develop an internal sleeve that supplies a glove-like match. Asymmetrical lacing is also utilized to link the foot to the shoe, but enable for pressure reduction on the prime ridge of the foot. All of which direct to a notably unnoticeable fit.

As described previously mentioned, I was skeptical about attempting running sneakers other than my favourite Nike Pegasus nonetheless, right after logging some miles in the Nike Free of charge Operate+3a??s I was confident that they could locate a place in my closet for numerous operates to occur. The shoe is light-weight, versatile, and relaxed. These characteristics all led to a fantastic managing experience that left me wanting to depart the shoes on for the rest of the working day. I want I could wear the Nike Free Run+3a??s on my local trails also, but they are not suited for working on even the most groomed gravel trails a?? as they will select up quite a few rocks in the siped soles. Put on them on the observe or pavement and you will be happy.

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has come up with an progressive technique for feet cushioning. The makers of Nike shoes specifically designed footwear which cushions and offers utmost security from the brutal impact of working.

When picking footwear for out of doors actions, make sure you take into account the climate and the specifications of the activity. Does the exercise phone for added traction, a lot more ventilation, far more insulation or far more assistance? Over all, select a shoe that will keep your toes comfortable. Pick the correct footwear now and get pleasure from your outside activities even far more.

There are hundreds of retailers from where you can get your own pair of Nike men's shoes. While these are presented at malls, you can also decide on to get your own by way of on the web merchants. One of these retailers situated on the world wide web is Nike Storm. This retailer gives its clients with a best value than other outlets. When you are residing within Canada or the United States, the delivery of your purchase is carried out through http://nike-free-trainer.webs.com
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Nazi Germany hosted the Olympic online games in 1936, and it was a male known as Adolf Dassler who created specific equipment for the event, initiating what was to turn into a large business. Soon after the War Dassler located himself short of footwear supplies and utilised scraps of canvas and leather-based gathered from military waste. He place three strips of leather-based throughout the tops of uppers to add energy and support.

In peace time, after the War, men and women started to find ways to preserve by themselves lively and steer clear of the worst outcomes of in excess of eating and ingesting. The exciting operate grew to become a social action, and jogging turned almost an obsession in some folks. All this led to growth occasions for footwear. Rows of packing containers waited in retail stores to be marketed, and ships laden with cheaply made merchandise plied the oceans from East to West. If you are like me and you struggle with arch assistance like me, nike free 5.0 v4
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This is the part of a running shoe the place I would most love to have a barefoot-like feel. I like some security on the sole of my foot, but really do not want to truly feel the upper digging in anywhere. The Nike Cost-free Run+ three upper is safe sufficient to maintain the foot locked in place, but stretchy and seamless enough to give an extremely relaxed feel. The higher is manufactured of Nanoply, which is each supportive and breathable. Close to the arch and midfoot, Dynamic Match is used to develop an inner sleeve that gives a glove-like fit. Asymmetrical lacing is also used to url the foot to the shoe, yet allow for force relief on the top ridge of the foot. All of which direct to a notably unnoticeable in shape.

As described over, I was skeptical about making an attempt managing shoes other than my favored Nike Pegasus however, following logging some miles in the Nike Free Operate+3a??s I was certain that they could find a location in my closet for many operates to appear. The shoe is light-weight, adaptable, and comfy. These attributes all led to a fantastic working knowledge that still left me seeking to depart the shoes on for the relaxation of the day. I would like I could dress in the Nike Free of charge Run+3a??s on my regional trails way too, but they are not suited for managing on even the most groomed gravel trails a?? as they will select up quite a few rocks in the siped soles. Dress in them on the observe or pavement and you will be delighted.

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About 1832 the notion of sticking rubber along the base of footwear worn for tennis or croquet was considered up. On account of the truth that they ended up silent they proved well-known between thieves coming to be acknowledged as sneakers, or sometimes plimsoles. These had been also utilized for jogging and many athletes completed ultra marathons of eighty kilometres in plimsoles as recently as the nike free 4.0
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Nazi Germany hosted the Olympic game titles in 1936, and it was a gentleman referred to as Adolf Dassler who developed specific equipment for the event, initiating what was to grow to be a large market. Following the War Dassler found himself short of footwear materials and employed scraps of canvas and leather gathered from army waste. He put a few strips of leather-based across the tops of uppers to incorporate energy and help.

In peace time, soon after the War, people began to find approaches to maintain themselves lively and stay away from the worst outcomes of in excess of consuming and ingesting. The exciting operate turned a social exercise, and jogging became nearly an obsession in some people. All this led to boom moments for footwear. Rows of boxes waited in retail shops to be marketed, and ships laden with cheaply manufactured items plied the oceans from East to West. If you are like me and you struggle with arch help like me, nike free 3
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??m marketed. Ia??ll be adding the Nike Free of charge Run+ 3 to at least one of my weekly speed routines, and I will don them at my following nearby 5K. Perhaps Ia??ll start off searching for some new working routes as well.

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This is the element of a managing shoe where I would most really like to have a barefoot-like really feel. I like some safety on the sole of my foot, but really do not want to feel the upper digging in anyplace. The Nike Totally free Run+ 3 higher is protected enough to keep the foot locked in area, but stretchy and seamless adequate to give an exceptionally comfy really feel. The upper is manufactured of Nanoply, which is equally supportive and breathable. Around the arch and midfoot, Dynamic Match is used to develop an interior sleeve that supplies a glove-like match. Asymmetrical lacing is also utilized to url the foot to the shoe, however enable for stress aid on the leading ridge of the foot. All of which direct to a notably unnoticeable match.

As talked about previously mentioned, I was skeptical about attempting operating sneakers other than my preferred Nike Pegasus however, following logging some miles in the Nike Free Run+3a??s I was confident that they could find a spot in my closet for numerous operates to come. The shoe is lightweight, versatile, and comfy. These characteristics all led to a wonderful managing knowledge that remaining me seeking to go away the shoes on for the rest of the day. I want I could wear the Nike Totally free Run+3a??s on my local trails also, but they arena??t suited for managing on even the most groomed gravel trails a?? as they will select up numerous rocks in the siped soles. Dress in them on the track or pavement and you will be delighted.

Nike Cost-free Operate+ 3 Defend Men's Managing Shoe delivers a barefoot-like trip with the cushioning, traction and underfoot protection of a shoe, although weather conditions resistance helps keep toes dry in wet circumstances.Reflective Weather ProtectionWeatherized mesh and reflectivity on the upper provide protection from the components and visibility in lower mild. The mesh has a DWR (durable, drinking water-repellant) finish that assists maintain ft dry while maintaining breathability.http://nike-free-trainer.webs.com
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taped to their feet, making use of large-speed cameras to seize images of every single foot in motion.The crew expended 8 many years finding out the biomechanics of shoeless managing. The results yielded a profound comprehension of the foot's normal landing angle, pressure and toe place, permitting Nike designers to construct an unconventional and versatile working shoe from the inside out.

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About 1832 the idea of sticking rubber along the base of sneakers worn for tennis or croquet was believed up. On account of the simple fact that they ended up silent they proved well-liked amid intruders coming to be recognized as sneakers, or often plimsoles. These have been also used for jogging and several athletes completed extremely marathons of eighty kilometres in plimsoles as just lately as the nike free run shoes
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Nazi Germany hosted the Olympic video games in 1936, and it was a gentleman named Adolf Dassler who produced particular gear for the celebration, initiating what was to become a large sector. Soon after the War Dassler discovered himself short of footwear resources and employed scraps of canvas and leather-based collected from military waste. He place three strips of leather across the tops of uppers to include power and assistance.

In peace time, soon after the War, people commenced to find ways to keep by themselves active and keep away from the worst effects of over taking in and consuming. The enjoyable operate grew to become a social action, and jogging became nearly an obsession in some people. All this led to boom times for footwear. Rows of boxes waited in retail merchants to be sold, and ships laden with cheaply created items plied the oceans from East to West. If you are like me and you battle with arch assist like me, nike free runners
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??s Phylite materials fills the two of these roles by becoming resilient enough for cushion, but durable adequate to make contact with the street, ensuing in lowered bodyweight. Designers have positioned abrasion-resistant BRS one thousand carbon rubber pads on the large-use locations of the sole to additional boost toughness. Yet another putting variation in the Nike Cost-free Run+ 3 sole device is the cuts, or sipes, by way of the sole that give the shoe outstanding overall flexibility and enough balance to give a barefoot-like really feel. The resulting flex grooves minimize affect shock and can aid proper more than-pronation. Diagonal cuts have also been placed together the arch area to enhance adaptability and increase foot power. The Nike Free of charge Run+ three is equipped with an opening in the midsole to keep a Nike Furthermore Chip, which can link to particular iProducts and the Nike sportwatch to transmit and keep operating knowledge. The opening does not appear to affect the versatility.

This is the element of a working shoe the place I would most enjoy to have a barefoot-like really feel. I like some security on the sole of my foot, but dona??t want to truly feel the higher digging in anyplace. The Nike Cost-free Run+ three higher is protected sufficient to keep the foot locked in location, but stretchy and seamless ample to give an incredibly comfortable feel. The upper is produced of Nanoply, which is equally supportive and breathable. All around the arch and midfoot, Dynamic Fit is utilized to generate an interior sleeve that provides a glove-like match. Asymmetrical lacing is also utilised to hyperlink the foot to the shoe, yet enable for pressure aid on the prime ridge of the foot. All of which direct to a notably unnoticeable match.

As talked about above, I was skeptical about trying managing footwear other than my favourite Nike Pegasus nevertheless, following logging some miles in the Nike Totally free Run+3a??s I was persuaded that they could uncover a location in my closet for several runs to occur. The shoe is light-weight, flexible, and comfortable. These qualities all led to a great operating knowledge that still left me wanting to leave the sneakers on for the relaxation of the day. I desire I could put on the Nike Totally free Run+3a??s on my nearby trails way too, but they are not suited for running on even the most groomed gravel trails a?? as they will decide up quite a few rocks in the siped soles. Use them on the observe or pavement and you will be happy.

Nike Totally free Operate+ three Shield Men's Working Shoe delivers a barefoot-like experience with the cushioning, traction and underfoot defense of a shoe, even though temperature resistance will help hold feet dry in damp situations.Reflective Weather conditions ProtectionWeatherized mesh and reflectivity on the higher provide security from the elements and visibility in lower mild. The mesh has a DWR (durable, water-repellant) complete that aids hold toes dry although maintaining breathability.http://nike-free-run-3-womens.webs.com
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The profitable entrepreneurial concept and operation of the NIKE organization is the essential illustration for the improvement and renewing of that of the business for sports.Nike, at first identified as Blue Ribbon Sporting activities, was launched by University of Oregon track athlete http://nike-free-7-0.webs.com
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Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. Now Nike has contracted with more than seven hundred outlets all around the entire world and has places of work situated in forty five international locations outside the house the United States.Regardless of whether you choose for ordinary pairs of nike free run sale footwear or you go for the most pricey sneakers from this brand, you are assured of pure ease and comfort. Even the most normal pair lessens the difficult drive of every downward effect although running or strolling. If your shoes do not have enough defense, the challenging effect that the toes is receiving can direct to damage. In order to prohibit more damage to the ft of the athletes, http://running-shoe.webs.com
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When picking footwear for out of doors activities, make certain you consider the local climate and the specifications of the action. Does the exercise phone for extra traction, more ventilation, a lot more insulation or far more help? Over all, choose a shoe that will preserve your ft relaxed. Pick the proper footwear now and enjoy your outdoor activities even much more.

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