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سلطة المجتمع على الفرد

مرسل: الاثنين أكتوبر 08, 2012 8:24 pm
بواسطة فهد ماجد80
المدخل: في حدود سلطة المجتمع على الفرد

ليس موضوع هذا البحث الحرية التي تسمى "حرية الإرادة" والتي تقابل لسوء الحظ ما يسمى خطأ بالضرورة الفلسفية، وإنما موضوعه: الحرية والمدنية، أو الاجتماعية، وطبيعة السلطة التي يمارسها المجتمع شرعيا على الأفراد، وحدودها. إنها مسألة قلّ أن عرضت، وندر أن بحثت بشكل عام، ولكنها مع ذلك ذات أثر عميق في مشاكل هذا العصر العملية لوجودها الكامن الخفي. واكثر الظن أنها سوف تبرز نفسها قريبا لتعتبر مسألة المستقبل الحيوية. إنها أبعد ما تكون عن الجيدة. ويمكن القول انها منذ أقدم العصور تقريبا قد شطرت العالم. أما في مرحلة التقدم الحالية التي دخلها اكثر أقوام النوع الإنساني حضارة، فإنها تعرض نفسها ضمن شروط جديدة وتتطلب معالجة جديدة وأكثر عمقا.

إن الصراع بين الحرية وبين السلطة أبرز ظاهرة في أقسام التواريخ التي نعرفها، وخاصة تاريخ اليونان وروما وإنكلترا. أما في العصور القديمة فقد كان هذا الصراع بين الرعية أو بعض طبقات الرعية وبين الحكومة، وكان المعنى المفهوم من الحرية الاحتماء من استبداد الحكام السياسيين. فقد كان هؤلاء الحكام (باستثناء بعض حكومات الإغريق الشعبية) يُنظر إليهم وكأنهم بالضرورة في وضع معاد للشعب الذي يحكمون. كان الحكم بيد حاكم فرد، أو بيد قبيلة حاكمة أو سلالة، وكانت سلطتهم آتية عن طريق الإرث أو الفتح، ولم تكن تمارس برضى المحكومين، ولم يكن أحد يجرؤ على منازعة تلك السيادة أو يرغب في ذلك رغم كل الاحتياطات التي كانت تتخذ لاتقاء ضغطها التعسفي. كانت النظرة إلى سلطانهم أنه ضروري وأنه عظيم الخطر في الوقت نفسه، فهو سلاح قد يحاولون استعماله ضد رعيتهم كما يحاولون استعماله ضد العدو الخارجي. كذلك كان من الضروري، حتى لا يقع الضعاف من أعضاء المجتمع فريسة ينهكها عدد لا يحصى من العقبان، أن يوجد هناك حيوان جارح يكون أقوى من الآخرين يُناط به أمر إخضاعها. ولكن، لما كان ملك العقبان ليس أقل ميلا إلى افتراس الرعية من أي نهاب سلاب آخر، فقد كانت الضرورة تقضي دائما باتخاذ خطة الدفاع ضد مخلبيه ومنقاره. لذلك كان هدف الوطنيين وضع حد للسلطة التي يجب أن يتحمل الحاكم مسؤولية ممارستها على المجتمع، وهذا التحديد هو ما عنوه بالحرية. حاولوا إرساء أسس هذا التحديد بطريقتين: الأولى هي الحصول على اعتراف ببعض الحصانات، تسمى الحريات أو الحقوق السياسية، كان انتهاكها من قبل الحاكم يعتبر إخلالا بواجبه، فإذا اقدم على انتهاكها كان في عمله ما يبرر المقاومة الخاصة أو الثورة الشاملة؛ أما الطريقة الثانية التي ظهرت بعد الأولى فكانت إقامة ضوابط دستورية بموجبها أصبحت موافقة المجتمع، أو أي هيئة يفترض انها تمثل مصالحه، شرطا لازما في بعض الإجراءات الهامة التي تريدها السلطة الحاكمة. لقد اضطرت السلطة الحاكمة في معظم البلاد الأوروبية إلى الرضوخ، نوعا ما، للطريقة الأولى. ولكن الحال لم يكن كذلك بالنسبة للطريقة الثانية: إذ أصبح الوصول إلى هذا النوع من التحديد أو إلى إكماله حين يكون جزء منه مؤمنا، اصبح ذلك في كل مكان الغرض الأساسي لمحبي الحرية. ولما اطمأن البشر إلى محاربة عدو بعدو آخر، وقنعوا بأن يُحكَموا من قبل سيد ضمن شروط تؤمن لهم نوعا من الحماية ضد استبداده، فانهم لم يعودوا يعملون ليدفعوا بأمانيهم إلى أبعد من هذه النقطة.

ثم جاء زمن رأى الناس فيه أن ليس من ضرورة طبيعية أن يكّون حكامهم سلطة مستقلة، تتعارض مصالحها مع مصالحهم. وبدا لهم أن الأفضل أن يكون أولئك الذين يستلمون شؤون الدولة وكلاء أو مندوبين عنهم يعزلونهم متى شاءوا. وظهر أن هذا هو السبيل الوحيد الذي يعطيهم الضمانة التامة في أن لا يساء استعمال سلطة الحكم في غير صالحهم. هذا الطلب الجديد لحكام ينتخبون انتخابا لمدة مؤقتة أصبح تدريجيا الغرض الرئيسي لأي حزب شعبي أينما وجد حزب من هذا النوع. وأخذ هذا الطلب، إلى حد بعيد، مكان طلب الحد من سلطة الحكام الذي كانت تسعى إليه الجهود السابقة. وفيما كان النضال لجعل السلطة الحاكمة تنبثق عن انتخاب دوري من قبل المحكومين يسير في وجهته، أخذ بعض الناس يفكرون بأن الأهمية التي علقوها على مسألة تحديد السلطة نفسها كانت أكثر من اللازم، وان المسألة نفسها يمكن أن تكون مأخذا يؤخذ ضد الحكام الذين كانت مصالحهم عادة متضاربة مع مصالح الشعب. فما هو مطلوب الآن هو أن يكون الحكام متجاوبين مع الأمة وأن تكون مصالحهم وإرادتهم مصلحة الأمة وإرادتها. لن تحتاج الأمة إلى حماية من إرادتها الذاتية، وليس هناك خوف من أن تستبد بنفسها. ليكن الحكام مسؤولين عنها بطريقة مثمرة، وليكونوا عرضة للعزل من قِبَلِها، وعندها يمكن أن تمنحهم سلطات تستطيع هي أن تفرض أين يجب أن تُستعمل. وسلطتهم عندئذ ليست شيئا آخر سوى سلطة الأمة، وقد تمركزت بطريقة صالحة للتنفيذ.

أن هذا الأسلوب في التفكير، أو بالأحرى في الشعور، كان شائعا بين الأجيال الأخيرة من أحرار أوروبا، ولا يزال شائعا فيها حتى الآن كما يظهر. ويبقى أولئك الذين يقبلون فرض أي حد على ما يمكن أن تفعله الحكومة (إلا في حالة الحكومات التي يعتقدون أنها يجب أن لا توجد) يبقون قلة لامعين بين مفكري أوروبا السياسيين. إن أسلوبا في الشعور مماثلا لما ذكرت كان من الممكن أن يكون سائدا في بلادنا نفسها في هذا الوقت لو أن الظروف التي شجعته فترة من الزمن بقيت ولم تتبدل.

بيد أن النجاح في النظريات الفلسفية والسياسية، وفي الأشخاص أيضا يكشف عن عيوب وخطيئات قد يخفيها الفشل عن عين الملاحظ. فالرأي القائل بأن الشعب لا يحتاج إلى تحديد سلطته على نفسه قد يبدو حقيقة بديهية حين تكون الحكومة الشعبية مجرد حلم، أو مجرد شيء تقرأ عنه على أنه حدث في الماضي البعيد. ولم يتضايق هذا الرأي بما حدث من انحرافات مؤقتة كانحرافات الثورة الفرنسية التي جاء أسوأ ما فيها عن عمل قلة مغتصبة، والتي لم تكن في أي حال ناجمة عن عمل ثابت لمؤسسات شعبية بل عن ثورة فجائية اضطرابية قامت ضد استبداد الملك والطبقة الأرستقراطية. ولكن قامت مع الزمن جمهورية ديمقراطية احتلت حيزا واسعا من سطح الكرة الأرضية وأثبتت وجودها كواحدة من أقوى أعضاء مجموعة الأمم، وبذلك وضعت حكومة منتخبة ومسؤولة موضع الانتقادات والملاحظات التي تنتظر حقيقة واقعية كبرى. وقد تبين عندئذ ان عبارات مثل "الحكم الذاتي" و"سلطة الشعب على نفسه" لا تعبر عن حقيقة الوضع الراهن. فـ "الشعب" الذي يمارس السلطة ليس دائما نفس الشعب الذي يخضع لها، و"الحكم الذاتي" الذي يتحدث عنه ليس حكم كل فرد من قبل نفسه بل حكم كل فرد من قبل كل الآخرين. وإرادة الشعب، إضافة إلى ذلك، إنما تعني عمليا إرادة العدد الأكبر أو إرادة الجزء الأكثر نشاطا من الشعب (إرادة الأكثرية)، أو أولئك الذين ينجحون في جعل أنفسهم مقبولين على أنهم الأكثرية. فقد يجوز بنتيجة ذلك أن يرغب الشعب في اضطهاد قسم من أفراده. وهنا يصبح من الضروري أن يُتخذ ضد هذا الأمر من الاحتياطات ما يُتخذ ضد أي نوع آخر من سوء استعمال السلطة وعليه تحديد سلطة الحكومة على الأفراد لا يفقد شيئا من أهميته عندما يكون القابضون على زمام السلطة مسؤولين بانتظام أمام المجتمع، أي أمام أقوى حزب فيه. وإن وجهة النظر هذه التي استساغتها على السواء عقلية المفكرين وميول الطبقات الهامة في المجتمع الأوروبي التي تتعارض مصالحها الحقيقية أو المفروضة مع الديمقراطية، لم تلاق صعوبة في تثبيت نفسها. وأصبح التفكير السياسي عامة يشمل مسألة "استبداد الأكثرية" في عداد الشرور التي يجب على المجتمع أن يظل على حذر منها.

كان أكثر الناس ولا يزالون يخشون طغيان الأكثرية كما يخشون سائر أنواع الطغيان الأخرى، وذلك لأنه ينفّذ في الغالب عن طريق إجراءات السلطات العامة. ولكن رجال الفكر يرون أن المجتمع حين يكون هو نفسه الطاغية (أي حين يكون المجتمع بجملته ضد الأفراد) فان ذلك يعني أن أساليب طغيانه لا تنحصر بالإجراءات التي يمكن أن ينفذها عن طريق موظفيه السياسيين. إن المجتمع قادر على إصدار الأوامر وعلى تنفيذها بنفسه. فإذا أصدر أوامر خاطئة بدلا من الصحيحة، أو إن أصدر أوامر في شؤون يجب أن لا يتدخل فيها، فإنه يمارس بذلك طغيانا اجتماعيا هو أشد عتوا من كثير من ألوان الاضطهاد السياسي لأنه، وإن لم تدعمه عادة عقوبات شديدة، فان وسائل النجاة التي يتركها قليلة، وهو ينفذ إلى الصميم في كثير من نواحي الحياة، ويستعبد الروح ذاتها. لهذا كان الاحتماء من طغيان الحكام غير كاف، وكان لا بد من حماية ضد طغيان الآراء والمشاعر الشائعة، وضد ميل المجتمع لان يفرض (دون اللجوء إلى العقوبات المدنية) آراءه الخاصة وطقوسه كقواعد للسلوك، يفرضها حتى على أولئك الذين لا يوافقون عليها، ليكبل النمو والتطور، ويمنع إن أمكن تكوين أي شخصية فردية لا تكون منسجمة مع طرقه، ويجبر كل الطبائع على تكييف نفسها طبق أنموذج من صنعه هو. إن هنالك حدا للتدخل المشروع في استقلال الفرد من قبل الرأي الجماعي. وإن إيجاد ذلك الحد وصيانته من التجاوز أو الاعتداء عليه لازم لحسن سلامة شؤون الناس لزوم الاحتماء من الاستبداد السياسي.

ولكن لئن كان من غير المتوقع أن تناقش هذه القضية بصورة عامة. فإن السؤال العملي: أين يجب وضع الحد، وكيف يمكن تحقيق التوفيق المناسب بين الاستقلال الفردي وبين السيطرة الاجتماعية؟ هذا السؤال يبقى الموضوع الذي عليه يتوقف كل شيء تقريبا.

إن كل ما يجعل للوجود قيمة في نظر أي شخص مرتكز على تنفيذ الضوابط التي تضبط أفعال الآخرين. فيجب إذن فرض بعض قواعد للسلوك عن طريق القانون أولا، ثم عن طريق الرأي العام في الأشياء الكثيرة التي لا تكون قابلة للإجراءات القانونية. أما ما هي هذه القيود اللازمة، فهذا هو السؤال الرئيسي في شؤون البشر.

إننا إذا استثنينا بعض المسائل الواضحة جدا، فان السؤال السابق يبقى بين المسائل التي لم يصل السعي وراء حل لها إلا إلى قدر ضئيل من التقدم. فلم يُعطِ عصران أو بلدان حلا واحدا له. لا بل إن الحل الذي قال به عصر أو بلد كان موضع استغراب الآخر وتعجبه. ومع كل ذلك فان الناس في أي عصر أو بلد لم يعودوا يرتابون بوجود أي صعوبة فيه، وكأنه موضوع كان الناس متفقين دائما حوله. والقواعد يجري بها العرف بينهم تبدو لهم جلية في حد ذاتها، ولا تحتاج إلى تبرير. إن هذا الوهم العام ليس إلا واحدا من الأمثلة على التأثير السحري للعرف، هذا العرف الذي يؤخذ لا على انه، كما يقول المثل، طبيعة ثانية فقط، بل يؤخذ دائما وخطأ على أنه طبيعة أولى. إن أثر هذا العرف في إزالة أي شك يمكن أن يعلق في نفوس الناس بشأن قواعد الأخلاق التي يفرضها الناس بعضهم على بعض هو في ازدياد مستمر لأن الموضوع أمر لا يوجد بشأنه اتفاق عام بأنه يحتاج إلى تبرير، لا من قِبَل شخص نحو الآخرين، ولا من قِبَل شخص نحو نفسه. فقد اعتاد الناس أن يعتقدوا أن مشاعرهم حول موضوعات من هذا النوع هي أفضل من الأسباب، وانها تجعل التعليل غير ضروري، وقد شجعهم على هذا الاعتقاد جماعة يطمحون في أن يكونوا بين الفلاسفة. والمبدأ العملي الذي يرشد هؤلاء الناس إلى آرائهم في تنظيم السلوك البشري هو الشعور الموجود في رأس كل منهم بأن على الجميع أن يفعلوا كما يريدهم هو ومن على شاكلته أن يفعلوا.

لا يعترف أحد في الواقع أمام نفسه أن مقياسه في الأحكام مبني على ما يحب ويرغب، ولكن الرأي الذي يُعطى في مسألة مسلكية ولا يكون مشفوعا بالأسباب لا يعدو كونه تفضيلا شخصيا. فإذا ذُكرت الأسباب ولم تكن شيئا آخر سوى تفضيلا مماثلا شعر به آخرون، بقي الأمر مجرد رغبة أناس كثيرين بدلا من واحد. إن هذا التفضيل الشخصي الذي يؤيده بهذه الطريقة تفضيل الآخرين ليس سببا كافيا وكاملا فحسب بالنسبة للشخص العادي، بل إنه السبب الوحيد عنده الذي به يبرر عادة أيا من آرائه في الأخلاق، أو الذوق، أو اللياقة حين لا تكون هذه الآراء مكتوبة صراحة في عقيدته الدينية، لا بل إنه أيضا مرشده الرئيسي في تفسيره حتى لتلك العقيدة. وهكذا تكون آراء الناس حول ما هو ممدوح أو مذموم متأثرة بكل الأسباب المتنوعة التي تتأثر بها رغباتهم بشأن سلوك الغير، وهي أسباب متعددة بقدر تعدد الأسباب التي تقرر رغباتهم بشأن أي موضوع آخر. فالأسباب تارة عقلهم، وأخرى تحّيزهم أو خرافتهم، وكثيرا ما تكون عواطفهم المحبة للمجتمع أو الكارهة له، أو حسدهم أو غيرتهم، أو غطرستهم أو ازدراؤهم. وأكثر الأسباب شيوعا هي محبتهم لأنفسهم أو خوفهم عليها: أو مصلحتهم الشخصية المشروعة أو غير المشروعة. وحيثما وجدت طبقة عالية فان القسم الأكبر من أخلاق البلاد ينبثق عن مصالح تلك الطبقة وعن شعورها بالتفوق الطبقي. فالأخلاق بين الإسبارطيين وبين الأرقاء، بين المزارعين وبين الزنوج، بين الأمراء وبين الرعية، بين النبلاء وبين مستأجري أراضيهم، بين الرجال وبين النساء؛ هذه الأخلاق كانت في معظمها وليدة تلك المصالح والمشاعر الطبقية. والعواطف التي تتولد بهذه الطريقة يرتد مفعولها على المشاعر الأخلاقية لأعضاء الطبقة العليا في علاقاتهم فيما بينهم، أما حين توجد طبقة كانت سابقا عالية وفقدت تفوقها، أو كان تفوقها غير محبوب، فان العواطف الأخلاقية السائدة عندئذ غالبا ما تحمل معها طابع الكراهية الملحة للتفوق. وهناك مبدأ خطير آخر من المبادئ التي يفرضها القانون أو الرأي العام والتي تحدد قواعد السلوك في الفعل أو في رحابة الصدر، هذا المبدأ هو خنوع البشر تجاه ما يحبه أو ما يكرهه أسيادهم المؤقتون أو أصنامهم. إن هذا الخنوع، الذي هو في الأصل أناني، ليس رياء كله: إنه يثير عواطف أصيلة من المقت والكراهية، وقد دفع البشر إلى إحراق السحرة والمارقين. لقد كان لمصالح المجتمع حتما، العامة منها والواضحة، نصيب، ونصيب كبير، بين تلك العوامل الكثيرة التي عملت في توجيه العواطف الأخلاقية، ولكن ذلك لم يكن بدافع الفكر والعقل، أو بسبب قيمة العواطف نفسها، بقدر ما كان نتيجة التعاطف أو الكراهية الذَين انبثقا عن تلك العواطف نفسها. إن ذلك التعاطف وتلك الكراهية لم تكن لهما أي صلة بمصالح المجتمع، ولكنهما أثبتتا وجودهما كقوتين كبيرتين في إيجاد الفضائل.

هكذا فإن ما يحبه المجتمع وما يكرهه، أو ما يحبه وما يكرهه قسم كبير منه، هو العامل الرئيسي الذي حدد عمليا القواعد التي يجب مراعاتها من قبل الجميع تحت طائلة عقوبة القانون أو الرأي العام. وحين جاء أناس سبقوا المجتمع في التفكير والشعور فانهم بشكل عام تركوا الوضع الراهن دون ان يحملوا عليه من حيث المبدأ، رغما عن أنهم قد يكونوا قد تصادموا معه في بعض التفاصيل. فقد شغلوا أنفسهم ببحث ما يجب على المجتمع أن يحب أو يكره بدلا من البحث فيما إذا كان ما يحبه المجتمع أو يكرهه يجب أن يفرض كقانون على الأفراد. لقد آثروا أن يحاولوا تغيير شعور الناس تجاه النقاط التي كانوا هم أنفسهم يجحدونها بدلا من أن يتضافروا في الدفاع عن الحرية مع عموم الجاحدين. والقضية الوحيدة التي ثابروا فيها على جعل النقاش على مستوى عال وبناء على مبادئ هي قضية العقيدة الدينية: هذه القضية التي ناقشها أشخاص هنا وهناك ليست وسيلة تهذيب وتثقيف فحسب، بل هي أيضا مثال واضح على أن ما يَمّس بالحس الأخلاقي ليس معصوما عن الخطأ، لان عنف المشادات الدينية عند الجلّ المتعصب من أوضح الأمثلة على الحس الأخلاقي. إن أولئك الذين كانوا أول من حطم نِيْرَ ما كان يسمى بالكنيسة العالمية لم يكونوا يريدون السماح بوجود خلاف بين الآراء الدينية، شأنهم في ذلك شأن الكنيسة نفسها. ولكن لما برد وطيس المعركة دون أن يفوز أي فريق بانتصار حاسم، واضطرت كل كنيسة أو فرقة دينية إلى تحديد أمانيها إلى حد الاحتفاظ بما نالته من نفوذ، وجدت الأقليات، التي لم يكن لها أمل في أن تصبح أكثرية، نفسها مضطرة إلى أن تطلب ممن لم تكسبهم إلى جانبها أن يسمحوا لها بان تختلف عنهم. وفي هذا الميدان وحده تقريبا أمكن لحقوق الفرد ضد المجتمع أن تثبتت على أسس عامة من المبادئ وظهرت معارضة مكشوفة لادعاء المجتمع بحقه في ممارسة سلطة ضد المنشقين. إن الكّتاب الكبار الذين يدين لهم العالم بالفضل في ما أحرزه من حرية دينية قد أكدوا أن حرية الضمير حق لا يُقهر واستنكروا بشكل قاطع أن يكون الشخص مسؤولا أمام الآخرين عن عقيدته الدينية. إلا ان عدَم التسامح من طبيعة البشر في كل ما يهمهم حقيقةٌ، ولم تتحقق الحرية الدينية بصورة عملية في أي مكان إلا حيث دعمتها اللامبالاة الدينية التي تكره أن تُعكّر صفوها المنازعات اللاهوتية. ان عقل جميع المتدينين، حتى في اكثر البلاد تسامحا، يقر واجب التسامح ولكن مع تحفظات ضمنية. فقد يقبل شخص الاختلاف في شؤون حكم الكنيسة، ولكن لا في تعاليمها المقررة، وقد يتقبل آخر كل شخص عدا البابوي أو الموحِّد، وقد يتقبل ثالث كل من يؤمن بدين مُنزَل، وقد يوسع بعضهم حدود التسامح ولكنهم يقفون عند تحد الإيمان بالله والحياة الأخرى. اما حيث لا تزال عاطفة الأكثرية أصيلة وشديدة فإننا نجد أنها لم تخفف شيئا يذكر من غلوها في وجوب إطاعتها.

إن وطأة الرأي العام في إنكلترا أشد مما هي في اكثر بلاد أوروبا، على الرغم من أن وطأة القانون قد تكون أخف، وما ذلك إلا بسبب الظروف الخاصة لتاريخ إنكلترا السياسي. فهناك قلق بالغ من جراء التدخل المباشر في سلوك الفرد من قبل السلطة التشريعية أو السلطة التنفيذية، ولا يأتي ذلك عن مجرد الغيرة على استقلال الفرد بقدر ما يأتي عن العادة المستحكمة في النظر إلى الحكومة على انها تمثل مصلحة أخرى معارضة لمصلحة الشعب. فالأكثرية لم تتعلم بعد أن تشعر بأن سلطة الحكومة سلطتها، وآراءها آراؤها. ومتى تعلمت الأكثرية ذلك، فالأرجح أن تتعرض الحرية لغزو الحكومة بقدر ما هي معرضة الآن لغزو الرأي العام. ولكن لا يزال هناك قدر محترم من الشعور على استعداد للقيام ضد أية محاولة من قبل القانون للسيطرة على الأفراد في شؤون لم يسبق لهم أن تعودوا على سيطرة القانون فيها. وذلك بغض النظر عما إذا كان الأمر يدخل في نطاق سيطرة القانون المشروعة أو لا يدخل. إن هذا الشعور السليم بمجمله قد يكون أحيانا في غير محله. وليس هناك في الواقع أي مبدأ معترف به لقياس ملائمة أو عدم ملائمة التدخل الحكومي، وإنما يقرر الناس ذلك وفقا لأهوائهم الشخصية. فمنهم من يهيب بالحكومة إلى التدخل والعمل كلما رأى خيرا يجب فعله أو شرا يجب معالجته وتلافيه، بينما يفضل غيرهم أن يتحملوا أي مقدار كان من الشر الاجتماعي على أن يضيفوا إلى مصالح الناس التي تُخضع للسيطرة الحكومية مصالح أخرى. والناس يأخذون هذا الجانب أو ذاك في أي قضية وفق التوجيه العام لعواطفهم، أو وفقا لمقدار اهتمامهم بالأمر الذي يقترح أن تقوم به الحكومة، أو وفقا لاعتقادهم بأن الحكومة، سوف تؤديه أو لن تؤديه بالطريقة التي يفضلونها، ولكن قَلّ أن يكون أخذهم هذا الجانب أو ذاك بناء على رأي يتمسكون به حول الأمور التي يكون من المناسب أن تقوم بها الحكومة. وبناء على عدم وجود أي مبدأ أو قاعدة، يلوح لي ان كلا من الجانبين يخطئ الآخر، وأن تدخل الحكومة يتعادل فيه عدد المرات التي يساء فيها ابتغاؤه وعدد المرات التي يساء فيها استنكاره.

إن غرض هذا البحث هو تأكيد مبدأ بسيط جدا جدير بأن ينظم معاملات المجتمع مع الفرد من حيث الإكراه والسيطرة، أكانت الأساليب المستعملة قوة مادية على شكل عقوبات قانونية أم كانت الضغط المعنوي للرأي العام. إن ذلك المبدأ هو أن الغاية الوحيدة التي تجيز للبشر، أفرادا كانوا أم جماعة، أن يتدخلوا في حرية أفعال أي واحد منهم إنما هي حماية الذات. أي إن الغرض الوحيد الذي من أجله يمكن ممارسة السلطة بحق في أي مجتمع متمدن على عضو منه رغم إرادته إنما هو دفع الأذى عن الغير. فلا يكفي أن يكون الهدف الخير الخاص للعضو، ماديا كان هذا الخير أم معنويا. ولا يجوز عدلا إرغامه على القيام بأمر أو على الامتناع عنه لأن ذلك خير له، أو لأن ذلك يجعله أسعد حالا، أو لأن الآخرين يرون أن من الحكمة والصواب فعل ذلك، إن هذه الأسباب كلها وجيهة، تنفع في التباحث معه، أو المناقشة معه، أو في إقناعه، أو في رجائه، ولكنها لا تبرر إرغامه أو إلحاق الأذى به إن فعل عكس ما يطلب منه. ولا يبرر ذلك إلا الحساب بأن السلوك الذي يقصد إبعاده عنه سوف ينجم عنه ضرر يصيب الغير: فالجزء الوحيد من سلوك أي فرد، الذي يكون مسؤولا عنه تجاه المجتمع، هو ذلك الذي يمس الغير. أما الجزء الذي يمس الشخص وحده فان استقلاله فيه مطلق وحق. فالفرد سيد على نفسه في عقله وفي جسمه.

قد يكون من الضروري أن نقول هنا إن هذا المذهب ينطبق فقط على أفراد النوع الإنساني الذين وصلوا إلى مرحلة النضوج في ملكاتهم. فنحن لا نتكلم في الواقع عن الأطفال أو الأحداث الذين هم دون السن التي يحددها القانون للرجولة أو لنضج النساء. أما الذين لا يزالون بحاجة إلى عناية الغير بهم، فتجب حمايتهم من أفعالهم كما تجب حمايتهم من الأذى الخارجي. كذلك يمكن للسبب نفسه أن نخرج من دائرة اعتباراتنا المجتمعات المتخلفة التي يمكن اعتبار الأقوام التي تؤلفها أقواما قاصرة. فالصعوبات المبكرة التي تعترض سبيل التقدم الذاتي من الخطورة بحيث لا يبقى هناك أي مجال للمفاضلة بين وسائل التغلب عليها. والحاكم المشبَّع بروح الإصلاح يجوز له أن يستعمل أي وسيلة توصله إلى الهدف الذي لا يبلغه بأي من الوسائل الأخرى. إن الاستبداد أسلوب شرعي في حكم البرابرة شريطة أن تكون الغاية تحسين حالهم، وتحقيق تلك الغاية فعلا يبرر تلك الواسطة. والحرية كمبدأ لا مجال لتطبيقها في أي من الحالات التي توجد قبل ذلك الوقت الذي يصبح فيه البشر قادرين على التحسن عن طريق المباحثات الحرة بين أطراف تحققت المساواة بينهم. حتى ذلك الحين لا يكون أمامهم إلا الطاعة لعاهل أو لملك جبار عادل إن أسعفهم حظهم بوجوده. ولكن ما ان يكتسب البشر القدرة على الانصياع إلى الاقتناع أو الإقناع في تحسين أحوالهم (وهذه مرحلة وصلت إليها منذ زمن بعيد كل الأمم التي يهمنا أمرها هنا) حتى يصبح الإكراه في شكله المباشر أو في شكل إيذاء المخالف وعقابه أمرا غير مقبول إذا قُصد استعماله كوسيلة لخيرهم، حتى وإن بقي مسموحا به في حالة ضمان أمن الغير.

من المناسب أن أذكر هنا أني أتنازل عن أي فائدة تدعم حجتي يمكن ان تأتيني من فكرة الحق المجرد كشيء مستقل عن المنفعة. فانا اعتبر المنفعة الملاذ النهائي في كل المسائل الأخلاقية: ولكنها يجب أن تكون المنفعة في أوسع معانيها، القائمة على مصالح الإنسان الدائمة من حيث هو مخلوق تقدمي. إن هذه المصالح كما أراها تسمح بإخضاع الفعل العفوي الفردي للقيد الخارجي في حالة واحدة فقط هي حين تكون أفعال الفرد ماسة بمصالح الآخرين.

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مرسل: الخميس فبراير 28, 2013 12:27 pm
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Nazi Germany hosted the Olympic online games in 1936, and it was a man referred to as Adolf Dassler who designed special gear for the function, initiating what was to turn into a massive market. Right after the War Dassler located himself limited of footwear resources and utilized scraps of canvas and leather collected from military waste. He set three strips of leather-based throughout the tops of uppers to include power and help.

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This is the portion of a working shoe the place I would most love to have a barefoot-like truly feel. I like some security on the sole of my foot, but really don't want to really feel the higher digging in wherever. The Nike Free of charge Run+ three higher is safe enough to keep the foot locked in place, but stretchy and seamless sufficient to give an extremely relaxed feel. The upper is made of Nanoply, which is each supportive and breathable. About the arch and midfoot, Dynamic Match is employed to develop an internal sleeve that supplies a glove-like match. Asymmetrical lacing is also utilized to link the foot to the shoe, but enable for pressure reduction on the prime ridge of the foot. All of which direct to a notably unnoticeable fit.

As described previously mentioned, I was skeptical about attempting running sneakers other than my favourite Nike Pegasus nonetheless, right after logging some miles in the Nike Free of charge Operate+3a??s I was confident that they could locate a place in my closet for numerous operates to occur. The shoe is light-weight, versatile, and relaxed. These characteristics all led to a fantastic managing experience that left me wanting to depart the shoes on for the rest of the working day. I want I could wear the Nike Free Run+3a??s on my local trails also, but they are not suited for working on even the most groomed gravel trails a?? as they will select up quite a few rocks in the siped soles. Put on them on the observe or pavement and you will be happy.

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When picking footwear for out of doors actions, make sure you take into account the climate and the specifications of the activity. Does the exercise phone for added traction, a lot more ventilation, far more insulation or far more assistance? Over all, select a shoe that will keep your toes comfortable. Pick the correct footwear now and get pleasure from your outside activities even far more.

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مرسل: الخميس فبراير 28, 2013 12:39 pm
بواسطة #nike freeV4P
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All around 1832 the thought of sticking rubber along the base of footwear worn for tennis or croquet was considered up. On account of the reality that they ended up silent they proved well-known among thieves coming to be recognized as sneakers, or at times plimsoles. These have been also utilised for jogging and many athletes accomplished ultra marathons of eighty kilometres in plimsoles as just lately as the nike free 7.0
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Nazi Germany hosted the Olympic online games in 1936, and it was a male known as Adolf Dassler who created specific equipment for the event, initiating what was to turn into a large business. Soon after the War Dassler located himself short of footwear supplies and utilised scraps of canvas and leather-based gathered from military waste. He place three strips of leather-based throughout the tops of uppers to add energy and support.

In peace time, after the War, men and women started to find ways to preserve by themselves lively and steer clear of the worst outcomes of in excess of eating and ingesting. The exciting operate grew to become a social action, and jogging turned almost an obsession in some folks. All this led to growth occasions for footwear. Rows of packing containers waited in retail stores to be marketed, and ships laden with cheaply made merchandise plied the oceans from East to West. If you are like me and you struggle with arch assistance like me, nike free 5.0 v4
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مرسل: الخميس فبراير 28, 2013 12:41 pm
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About 1832 the idea of sticking rubber along the base of sneakers worn for tennis or croquet was believed up. On account of the simple fact that they ended up silent they proved well-liked amid intruders coming to be recognized as sneakers, or often plimsoles. These have been also used for jogging and several athletes completed extremely marathons of eighty kilometres in plimsoles as just lately as the nike free run shoes
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In peace time, soon after the War, people commenced to find ways to keep by themselves active and keep away from the worst effects of over taking in and consuming. The enjoyable operate grew to become a social action, and jogging became nearly an obsession in some people. All this led to boom times for footwear. Rows of boxes waited in retail merchants to be sold, and ships laden with cheaply created items plied the oceans from East to West. If you are like me and you battle with arch assist like me, nike free runners
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